identify a causal effect, we instrument county level repatriations with the existence of a railway line to Mexico interacted … employment of native incumbent workers and resulted in their occupational downgrading. However, using a repeated cross section of … county level data, we find attenuated and non-significant employment effects and amplified wage downgrading. We show that …

cohorts of Mexicans and Central Americans by comparing their earnings and employment probability to those of natives with … States without an employment rate disadvantage, and they surpassed natives within 10 years. We also find that Mexicans and …