It is shown that, with fixed transaction costs in the market for risky assets, investors with wealth below a certain threshold will hold pooled index funds that charge a proportional fee, rather than the market portfolio chosen by wealthier investors. If a portfolio of closed-end index funds...

The CAPM can explain closed-end fund (CEF) discounts as a consequence of the higher betas on CEF shares than on their underlying portfolios. The difference in betas is much greater for international funds and for bond funds than for domestic equity funds. CEF shares carry both more idiosyncratic...

Empirical evidence from the UK market is brought to bear on recent theories of closed-end fund discounts. Market pricing of skill, relative to the fees charged for it, accounts for a significant portion of discount variation, but cannot explain the rarity of index funds or why they trade at a...