This paper studies the problem of covariance estimation when prices are observed non-synchronously and contaminated by i.i.d. microstructure noise. We derive closed form expressions for the bias and variance of three popular covariance estimators, namely realised covariance, realised covariance...

The Probability of Informed Trading (PIN) is a widely used indicator of information asymmetry risk in the trading of securities. Its estimation using maximum likelihood algorithms has been shown to be problematic, resulting in biased estimates, especially in the case of liquid and frequently...