the U.S. South to Northern urban centers, which were home to millions of European immigrants arrived in previous decades … distance among native-born whites, reducing the barriers to the social integration of European immigrants. Predicting Black in …-migration with a version of the shift-share instrument, we find that immigrants living in areas that received more Black migrants …

Immigrants who arrived in the U.S. before the Civil War were less likely to reside in locations with high immigrant … concentrations as their time in the U.S. increased. This is contrary to the experience of recent immigrants who show no decrease in … concentration after arrival. The reduced isolation of antebellum immigrants was not due to their own movement to places with fewer …