the average age of great scientific contributions has risen substantially since the early 20th Century and some scientists … progress, and the design of institutions that support scientists, while providing further insights about the implications of …

, suggesting that professional imprinting takes place in the early stages of a scientist’s academic career. Based on a sample of …), we find that scientists with industry-oriented co-authors are more likely to be involved with industry (personal peer … effect). Moreover, we find that the scientist’s involvement increases with the orientation of the scientist’s department …

rights and research grants) as evaluator expertise narrows, and (c) providing appropriate effort incentives as scientists …

and publications, for 83,000 American scientists in 1956 at the height of the baby boom. Our analyses reveal a unique life …-cycle pattern of productivity for mothers. While other scientists peak in their mid-thirties, mothers become more productive after … 15 years of marriage, while other scientists peak in the first 10 years. Differences in the timing of productivity have …

rights and research grants) as evaluator expertise narrows, and (c) providing appropriate effort incentives as scientists …