expressive crime. Delinquents are motivated to perform the illegal action because it transmits a signal. If the punishment … associated with the crime affects the value of this signal positively, an increase in punishment may serve as defiance, and not … an increase in law violations after an increase in available punishment. This claim is discussed with reference to …

evidence on punishment preferences, in which subjects reveal a heterogeneous preference for punishing wrongdoers, our model … identifies circumstances in which “punitive” individuals (with stronger-than-average punishment preferences) will self …-select into law enforcement jobs that offer the opportunity to punish (or facilitate the punishment of) wrongdoers. Such “punitive …