The case for including agglomeration benefits within transport appraisal rests on an assumed causality between access … of transport projects. The results show a high degree of sensitivity to treatment for unobserved heterogeneity and to … agglomeration effects of transport investments cannot be interpreted causally. …

third variable, susceptible of confounding the relation between X and Y. This paper examines complex systems of variables …, characterised by multiple causes and multiple effects. The paper advances the view that in such contexts confounding is a moot issue …

Success, Cause and Confounder) and the use of variables by NCR (notably the variables Effect, Truth and Confounding). (3 …

confounding. We do not require (conditionally) exogenous regressors or instruments. Using proxies W for the confounders U, we ask … proportional confounding are limit cases yielding full identification. Alternatively, the elements of beta-hat are partially …

Basic causality is that a cause is present or absent and that the effect follows with a success or not. This happy … Confounding and values {S, -S}, {C, -C}, {F, -F}. Assuming the truth we can find the impact of the cause from when the confounder … conditional independence. The paper gives a taxonomy of issues of confounding, a parameterization by risk or safety, and develops …

('agglomeration'), that this effect is stronger for the top of the income distribution ('polarization'), and that household income …

This paper studies how firm heterogeneity in terms of productivity affects the balance between agglomeration and … mark-ups. It shows that firm heterogeneity matters. However, whether it shifts the balance from agglomeration to dispersion … 'evenness'. Accordingly, the role of firm heterogeneity in selection models of agglomeration cannot be fully understood without …

coagglomeration to document heterogeneity across industries in the microfoundations of agglomeration economies. The pattern of …Many prior treatments of agglomeration either explicitly or implicitly suppose that all industries agglomerate for the … approach is the extrapolation of the agglomeration experience of one key sector or cluster to the larger economy. Another is …