contagion from purely observational data. It is especially helpful as a corrective to some of the more extreme statements of …

Abstract The paper considers the properties of and relations between confounding and effect modification from the … of confounding depends on how the exposure was assigned; the presence of effect modification does not. The possibility of … confounding without effect modification and vice versa is discussed both with respect to distribution and measure. Discussion is …

, different mechanistic forms of interaction, when interaction is robust to unmeasured confounding, interaction for continuous …

relatively small compared to confounding bias, suggesting that it is generally not a serious concern in many applied settings … -Structure tend to increase confounding bias more rapidly than M -Bias, suggesting that choosing to condition on any given …

number of pending problems in causal analysis, including questions of confounding control, policy analysis, mediation …

independence assumption stating that, in the absence of confounding, the vector of regression coefficients describing the influence … $\textbf{X}$ . For the special case of a scalar confounder we show that confounding typically spoils this generic orientation … in a characteristic way that can be used to quantitatively estimate the amount of confounding (subject to our idealized …

Abstract Although the concept of randomized assignment in order to control for extraneous confounding factors reaches …