Freedom of association and living wages are two fundamental components of social upgrading in global value chains. However, in the apparel sector, the power afforded to lead firms due to industry consolidation has resulted in a squeeze on suppliers and on workers that is reflected in terms of...

Relative to their counterparts in high-income regions, entrepreneurs in developing countries face less efficient financial markets, more volatile macroeconomic conditions, and higher entry costs. This paper develops a dynamic empirical model that links these features of the business environment...