Prior research finds that commercial borrowers provide lenders with private information. This research generally does not identify how lenders obtain such information or the types of information obtained, however, limiting the directness and interpretability of tests of lenders' use of the...

Prior to 2018, accounting rules required banks that recognize financial liabilities at fair value to record unrealized gains and losses on the liabilities attributable to changes in the banks' own credit risk, referred to as the debt valuation adjustment (DVA), in earnings each period. Using a...