This paper tests for the existence and consequences of customer-based racial discrimination in Europe’s five largest professional soccer leagues. Most of the previous studies focusing on European sports, as opposed to North American sports, either used wage models to identify discrimination of...

Police unions have garnered the attention of the media and some scholars in recent years. That attention has often focused on exploring the seemingly inexplicable power of police unions to shield problem officers from accountability as a matter of routine. This paper aims to explain that police...