Post-crisis European reforms have focused on 'micro' measures, like shoring up financial institutions, ensuring their solvency and sound supervision, and the resolution to deal with them in a crisis. However, bold 'macro' measures to deal with problems that cut across the whole financial sector...

Banks' activity is challenged by the macroeconomic, financial and regulatory environment emerging from the financial crisis. Slower economic growth, low interest rates, more stringent regulation on capital and liquidity, the need to decrease leverage for a number of banks, increased market...