Trade secrets are valuable intellectual property rights that protect confidential information acquired through purchase or licensing. Their value lies in their confidentiality, known only to a limited group, and the owner must take reasonable measures to maintain secrecy. Trade secrets encompass...

This paper compares the degree of openness to trade of three developed countries markets-the European Union, Japan, the United States-with that of three middle-income countries, namely Brazil, India, and China. A theoretically consistent protection measure - the Mercantilistic Trade...