Energy is primarily a private good but also has public goods characteristics. The EU’s traditional strategy to cater to the strategic goods element - energy security - was the liberal market model. The Ukraine crisis has fundamentally put the liberal model in question. The present EU measures...

Since 1992, the European Union has put liberalisation at the core of its energy policy agenda. This aspiration was very much in line with an international political economy driven by the neo-liberal (Washington) consensus. The central challenge for the EU is that the energy world has changed,...