Although racial inequalities are much researched, studies differ on the specific measure of individuals’ racial identity that they consider. This can affect the comparability of results across studies and, more importantly, the estimation of racial inequality in society. We estimate the extent...

Although the idea that individuals’ race is fluid and can change over time is increasingly accepted, racial identities have a structural component involving the presence of immutable and typically easily observable individual traits. This research note considers physical appearance (hair and...