The notion of a defence Union has been played with since the beginning of the European integration. Despite hardships in deepening the integration further from that of the economy, the European Union has taken some significant steps regarding foreign and security policy from the early 1990's to...

We present new evidence about the relationship between military conflict and city population growth in Europe from the fall of Charlemagne's empire to the start of the Industrial Revolution. Military conflict was a main feature of European history. We argue that cities were safe harbors from...

We analyze a general commitment problem inherent to the formation of tax states: How can a state credibly promise to use tax revenues for pre-specified purposes? At the start of the early modern period in Europe, monarchs controlled expenditure. Where parliaments controlled taxation, the result...