The ecological literature suggests that biodiversity reduces the variance of ecosystem services. Thus, conservative … biodiversity management has an insurance value to risk-averse users of ecosystem services. We analyze a conceptual ecological … and external effects of management effort on biodiversity; and (iii) the welfare loss due to free-riding may decrease or …

has negative downstream externalities: contributions hurt agents outside the in-group (“Outsiders”), rendering them anti …-social. Many models of social preferences predict that such externalities should reduce provision, although conditional cooperation … downstream externalities reduces contributions by half when they have closer contact with Outsiders but not at all when they have …