Digital transformation is changing how and by whom financial services are provided, how payments are made within an economy and across borders, and how and where goods and services are produced in a globalized economy. These transformations bring significant benefits in the form of greater...

What is the output of financial institutions? And how can we measure their nominal and, more importantly, real value, especially since many financial services are provided without explicit charges? This paper summarizes the theoretical result that, to correctly impute the nominal value of...