Governments in more developed economies partially compensate import-competing industries when world prices fall, i …-maker would respond to lower world prices by reducing tariff protection for an import-competing industry. An initial tariff that …

tariffs, and imports at the HS-6 digit level for 58 developing countries, and simulates results for different sets of import … of low- and middle-income countries. The study applies a linear optimization framework to data for bound tariffs, applied …

in a given sector is affected by past reductions in applied tariffs. Employing an identification strategy based on 'new … measures', we find evidence of a substitution of non-tariff measures for tariffs both in the sample of TBT and in the sample of …. These results are consistent with our theoretical model, which predicts policy substitution between tariffs and standards in …