three instruments: an allowance system (tradable green certificates), a subsidy system (feed-in tariffs) and a Pigouvian …

credit is a direct gasoline consumption subsidy with no effect on the ethanol price and therefore does not help either corn … gasoline price is always higher with a mandate compared to a tax credit. A tax credit alone is an ethanol consumption subsidy … a fuel consumption subsidy. Ethanol producers only gain indirectly with the increased ethanol demand resulting from the …

retaliatory measures from other countries, leading to a wasteful "subsidy race." However, subsidies for sectors with inherent … of a ``subsidy race'' in the semiconductor industry …

procedure, we obtain firm-specific predicted subsidy amounts that can be explained by the characteristics that determine the … subsidies in developing countries, we regard the discrepancy between the predicted and the observed subsidy amounts as a proxy … diminishing in subsidy size and in the degree of firm's connectedness to government officials. -- Export subsidies ; exports …