There is a broad literature on middleman minorities, beginning in the 1940s to demystify the intermediary economic niche that Jews had occupied in medieval Europe (Becker,1940; Rinder, 1958). In the 1960s scholars began to systematically apply the middleman minority theory to colonial societies...

This paper uses a field experiment to study the effect of perceived gender norms on the motherhood penalty in the Indian labor market. We randomly reported motherhood on fictitious CVs sent to service sector job openings. We generated exogenous variation in gender norms by prominently signaling...