Given fiscal constraints, how did colonial states allocate coercion within their territories? This paper proposes a new explanation for variation in colonial coercion: the extent of pre-colonial state consolidation. When the pre-colonial state achieved control over local society via capture of...

Why do states expand their involvement in education, when it can be cheaply provided through societal organizations, and when building a new education system involves large fiscal costs? I address this puzzle in the context of colonial states with significant fiscal constraints. I argue that two...