Positivist philosophy provided the foundation for all social sciences as they were developed in the twentieth century. Now that positivism has been abandoned by philosophers, it is essential to replace methodology founded on positivist precepts. We show that the foundations of probability (both...

Probabilities of one-time events are unobservable and unmeasurable. According to empiricist and positivist principles, they must be meaningless. However, our cognitive limitations do not prevent entities and effects from existing. We show that the argument for existence of subjective...

We show that the dominant definitions of probability are seriously flawed. While finite frequentism fails to define, infinite frequentism is not operational. Similarly, the Dutch Book arguments used to establish the existence of subjective probability fail to do so. An alternative definition of...