Municipalities may have various motives for decisions on the mode of their task execution. Empirical studies – based on both public choice and transaction costs theory - have not yet provided a fully comprehensive explanation for municipal contracting out decisions. Therefore, we held...

The article aims to analyze non-motorized transport initiatives by adopting the innovation-in-services approach based on multi-agents. We selected ten cases in the municipality of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Our findings identified innovations in the local context in the treatment of infrastructure for...

Medellin's government wanted to raise its efficacy, legitimacy, and control. The city identified 80 neighborhoods with weak state presence and competing armed actors. In half, they increased non-police street presence tenfold for two years, offering social services and dispute resolution. In...