In this article we analyze the risk associated with hedging written call options. We introduce a way to isolate the gamma risk from other risk types and present its loss distribution, which has heavy tails. Moving to an insurance point of view, we define a loss ratio that we find to be well...

At a time when economics is giving intense scrutiny to the likely impact of artificial intelligence (AI) on the global economy, this paper suggests the two disciplines face a common problem when it comes to uncertainty. It is argued that, despite the enormous achievements of AI systems, it would...