Regimes controlled by a rich elite often collapse and make way for democracy amidst widespread social unrest. Such … why the elite may have to resort to full-scale democratization, despite its apparent costs to themselves, may be that … therefore be forced to choose between repression and the most generous concession, a transition to full democracy …

income. We explain this process of democratization as a rational way for incumbent elites to wage war effectively on other …

marginal cost of violence always reduces violence, while increasing the indiscriminate fixed cost may backfire and result in …

hooligans reap utility from violence and social identity and study the effects of different police strategies. We find that an … increase in discriminative policing, provided by intelligence units, for example, always reduces violence. Under the right … circumstances, it may also lead to larger supporter clubs and a significant drop in violence. Indiscriminate policing, such as the …

Organized crime uses political violence to influence politics in a wide set of countries. This paper exploits a novel … dataset of attacks directed towards Italian local politicians to study how (and why) criminal organizations use violence … against them. We test two competing theories to predict the use of violence i) before elections, to affect the electoral …