Between 1.5 and 2 billion of the world's poor are small farmers. In recent years, voluntary certification has become a …-sourcing schemes, and certified products are increasingly available in mainstream retail outlets. Recent impact studies, however, have … failed to demonstrate consistent farmer benefits from certification, leading to a debate among practitioners as to whether it …

of cooperatives, as previous studies did, it is not easy to disentangle certification effects from possible cooperative …. First, in Cote d'Ivoire Fairtrade certification benefits farmers economically. Second, and more generally, cooperative … characteristics are jointly correlated with certification and relevant outcomes, which needs to be accounted for to avoid bias when …