This paper argues that school grades cannot be interpreted solely as a reward for a given school performance, since they also reflect teachers' ratings of pupils. Grades therefore contain valuable information about pupils' own - usually unknown - ability. The incorporated assessment in grade...

While much empirical work concerns job tenure, this paper introduces the concept of school tenure - the length of time one student has been in a given school. I examine whether and how school tenure impacts students' output using rich cohort data on England's secondary schools. Ordinary Least...