This paper provides the results of a field test of contingent valuation estimates within a willingness to accept framework. Using dichotomous choice questions in telephone- mail-telephone interviews, we compare responses to real and hypothetical offers to survey respondents for the opportunity...

This paper examines the three major explanations for the disparity between WTP and WTA observed in contingent value surveys and laboratory experiments: a belief that the results must be biased in some fashion, Hanemann's (1991) substitutes hypothesis, and the loss aversion model proposed by...