reduces both moderate and extreme violence. The reason is that a high penalty keeps relatively 'gutless' individuals from … relatively 'tough' individuals to commit moderately violent acts and so makes moderate violence more attractive for otherwise …

absence of state authority, insecurity and crime generate a demand for protection. When the protection providers themselves … are recruited among criminals, the prospect of graduating to the Firm magnifies the incentive for violent crime. More … violence in turn increases the income of the protection providers. The result is a violence multiplier. Combining elements from …