subjects may exit. In a simple model, both kinds of competition are substitutes. Internal competition (democracy) benefits … democracy, and rulers are less eager to oppose it, when external competition is high. In a panel of countries, there are fewer … changes towards democracy when states have low GDP relative to their neighbours. -- political competition ; dictatorship …

Western donors attempting to promote democracy across the globe face a dilemma. Democracy is a highly valued policy … goal, but they are fearful that the path to democracy will undermine another highly valued goal – political stability – and …

through the extension of franchise. This is because democracy always implements a highly redistributive fiscal policy, which … makes fighting hard incentive-compatible for the citizens-soldiers. We show that a transition to democracy is more likely to … evidence consistent with our theory is also provided. -- Autocracy ; democracy ; wars ; redistribution …