expressive crime. Delinquents are motivated to perform the illegal action because it transmits a signal. If the punishment … associated with the crime affects the value of this signal positively, an increase in punishment may serve as defiance, and not …Expressive crime contrasts with instrumental crime in that delinquents do not seek material benefits. Law breakers are …

evidence on punishment preferences, in which subjects reveal a heterogeneous preference for punishing wrongdoers, our model … identifies circumstances in which “punitive” individuals (with stronger-than-average punishment preferences) will self …-select into law enforcement jobs that offer the opportunity to punish (or facilitate the punishment of) wrongdoers. Such “punitive …

Becker's theory of crime, penalties must be at least as high as expected benefits to deter crimes. For example, we start by … multiplying cartel infringement by the reciprocal of the probability of detection and punishment. When we factor in expected … discussed in the literature. By applying the empirically determined probabilities of punishment, we can calculate the minimum …