A simple formula for non-discriminatory insurance pricing is introduced. This formula is based on the assumption that certain individual (discriminatory) policyholder information is not allowed to be used for insurance pricing. The suggested procedure can be summarized as follows: First, we...

This tutorial gives an overview of SHAP (SHapley Additive exPlanation), one of the most commonly used techniques for examining a black-box machine learning (ML) model. Besides providing the necessary game theoretic background, we show how typical SHAP analyses are performed and used to gain...

A key aspect defining the contemporary income distribution is the (increasing) share the top holds compared to the rest. This paper shows that income concentration increases towards the very top of the distribution, while the shares the middle- and upper-middle-income groups hold remain stable...