-contingent renewable subsidies outperforms both unconditional commitment and discretion. The choice between the practically more feasible …

(renewable energy deployment) or upstream development and manufacturing of those technologies. The use of subsidies …-particularly upstream ones-is disciplined by World Trade Organization agreements, and its subsidies code lacks exceptions for transboundary … externalities like human health or resource conservation, including those related to combating global climate change. The strategic …

Industrial policy has long been criticized as subject to protectionist interests; accordingly, subsidies to domestic … offering production (upstream) and deployment (downstream) subsidies in producer countries, allowing that some of the … downstream market may lie in nonregulating third-party countries. Restraints on upstream subsidies erode global welfare when …