Purpose: This paper presents the case for an analysis of communication at the supra-individual level as a means of rendering the understanding of learning and acting tractable. We introduce a method of analysis of redundancy to achieve this. Approach: We argue for a supra-individual approach to...

Following a suggestion of Warren Weaver, we extend the Shannon model of communication piecemeal into a complex systems model in which communication is differentiated both vertically and horizontally. This model enables us to bridge the divide between Niklas Luhmann’s theory of the...