In any energy system there are unwanted residual output flows that are necessary to obtain final products. These are known as waste, and represent an exergy loss that has an inherent cost that must be “charged” to the useful products of the system. Calculation of production costs including...

Industrial Symbiosis entails the transformation of linear industrial processes into closed loop systems: matter and energy flows that were wastes become resources for other processes (by-products), resulting in a reduction of both natural resources consumption and waste production....