legal personality doctrines inapplicable. Moreover, a possible shift towards a regime of strict criminal liability will be … of antitrust liability can be resorted to in the framework of private enforcement …

directors from engaging with undesirable behaviour which exposes the company to risk of liability and loss …

by their subsidiaries. Under the new EU Directive on Antitrust Damages Actions, parent company liability is likely to be … instruments, in particular the individual liability of executives and employees. On this basis, I conclude that it is primarily … the existence of these functional substitutes that explains why a need for parent company liability has not arisen in US …

UK competition law authorities primarily target companies. Such a strategy exposes companies to the risk of liability …

liability. Taking a closer look at the “single economic unit/undertaking” explanation endorsed by the Courts post-Akzo, it … this in mind, two alternative justifications for parental liability are then discussed: the “failure to exercise vigilance … for parental liability in EU competition law …