provinces became the ultimate paymasters for health-care personnel. The natural result was an ongoing competition between …

markets (US, UK, Canada, Germany) but that regulation undermines generic competition in strict regulatory systems (France …, Italy, Japan). Regulation of retail pharmacy further constrains competition in France, Germany and Italy. Regulation thus …Most countries regulate pharmaceutical prices, either directly or indirectly, on the assumption that competition is at …

of the patent system and related forms of protection than has previously been recognised. Nevertheless, the rate of … patent protection, an exclusion whose history has produced a substantial body of scholarship. However, its aims go beyond …