In this paper, we describe an operational methodology for characterising the architecture of complex technical systems and demonstrate its application to a large sample of software releases. Our methodology is based upon directed network graphs, which allows us to identify all of the direct and...

Many products are manufactured in networks of firms linked by transactions, but comparatively little is known about how or why such transaction networks differ. This paper investigates the transaction networks of two large sectors in Japan at a single point in time. In characterizing these...

The purpose of this chapter is to understand how technology contributed to the emergence and evolution of modular production networks between 1980 and the present. In a modular production network, the activities needed to create a functioning system (for example, a personal computer) are...