This study utilized both single-regime GARCH and double-regime GARCH models to investigate oil price volatility, Spanish macroeconomic factors, and stock prices during major crises such as geopolitical conflicts, the global financial crisis (GFC), and COVID-19, covering the period from Q2-1995...

The COVID-19 pandemic and pandemic-induced lockdowns and quarantine establishments have inevitably affected individuals, businesses, and governments. At the same time, the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic had a dramatic impact on financial markets all over the world and caused an increased level...