The income gradient in political participation is a widely accepted stylized fact. This article asks how income effects …

, cost effectiveness, equity, flexibility in the presence of new information, and incentives for participation and compliance … market-based approaches, especially those with price mechanisms; and participation and compliance incentives are inadequately … environmental outcome and efficiency, and between cost-effectiveness and incentives for participation and compliance. …

incapable of inducing significant participation and compliance. We assess the Protocol and thirteen alternative policy … architectures that have been proposed, with particular attention to their respective abilities to induce participation and … compliance. We find that those approaches that offer cost-effective mitigation are unlikely to induce significant participation …