In all Western societies women earn lower wages on average than men. The gender wage gap has existed for many years … progress made by women in the labor market, and the characteristics and causes of remaining gender inequalities. It also covers … other dimensions of inequality and their interplay with gender, such as family formation, wellbeing, race, and immigrant …

participation using 70 censuses from 36 countries in 1990–2010. We document a strong relationship between the gender wage gap and … the size of the motherhood penalty. The penalty is smallest in countries with small gender wage gaps. Both cross- and … within-country relationships between motherhood penalty and gender wage gap remain strong and negative even when we condition …

reflect and perpetuate gender norms that limit women's economic participation, and removal of these impediments through legal …, and the United States) that rank high in gender equality in their respective regions demonstrate how legal reforms have …