In this chapter we survey the empirical literature on media bias, with a focus on partisan and ideological biases …. First, we discuss the methods used to measure the relative positions of media outlets. We divide bias into two categories …, explicit and implicit bias. We group existing measures of implicit bias into three categories: measures based on comparing …

municipal governments. It drives the following main implication: increasing partisan bias in favor of the incumbent reduces … efficiency in public production, and more so the higher the variation of random popularity shocks in voting. This implication is … exogenous sources of variation to construct our measures of random shocks and partisan bias, we find strong statistical support …