While the general principle that fines for antitrust violations be set at deterrent levels is well established in prevailing Guidelines on Fines, how these principles are to be interpreted in specific cases is not even considered, or at most only non-operational indications are provided. This...

Governments play a significant role in determining how markets function and use a variety of policies for this purpose, including economic regulation, trade policy and antitrust. Some of these policies (i.e. trade policy and antitrust) in principle promote competition directly, but sometimes are...

In recent years, several competition authorities around the world have announced majorinvestigations into potential anti-competitive behaviour by digital platforms. Not all ofthat behaviour harms downstream consumers. This has contributed to a growing ‘existentialcrisis’ at the foundation of...