This paper retraces the Communities external liberalisation efforts, and discusses, where relevant, the repercussions of internal liberalisation on foreign competitors. The aim of the paper is to clarify, and when feasible, to quantify the economic effects of the EU’s trade policies. To this...

Setting R&D spending targets based on R&D intensities (GERD as a share of GDP) has been a part of science and technology policy in many OECD countries for at least 35 years. What is new is that the targeting of R&D has become more widespread and a more visible goal commanding considerable...