In this paper we first consider alternative measures of efficiency. We explain why simple partial productivity measures are inadequate as the basis of overall measures of efficiency, and outline two alternative approaches. The first is technical efficiency - the degree to which output is...

“Resource shuffling,” a form of carbon leakage, occurs when different subnational approaches to carbon regulation create variations in the costs of production across jurisdictions. This Article addresses the “resource shuffling” problem presented by California’s cap-and-trade program...