Services, which are less traded than goods, rose from 50 percent of world expenditure in 1970 to 80 percent in 2015 …. Such structural change restrained "openness"—the ratio of world trade to world GDP—over this period. We quantify this …

Services, which are less traded than goods, rose from 58 percent of world expenditure in 1970 to 79 percent in 2015 … consumption has affected trade. Without structural change, we find that the world trade to GDP ratio would be 15 percentage points … in trade costs, ongoing structural change implies that world trade as a share of GDP would eventually decline. Going …