The case for including agglomeration benefits within transport appraisal rests on an assumed causality between access … of transport projects. The results show a high degree of sensitivity to treatment for unobserved heterogeneity and to … agglomeration effects of transport investments cannot be interpreted causally. …

The case for including agglomeration benefits within transport appraisal rests on an assumed causality between access … of transport projects. The results show a high degree of sensitivity to treatment for unobserved heterogeneity and to … agglomeration effects of transport investments cannot be interpreted causally. …

relatively small compared to confounding bias, suggesting that it is generally not a serious concern in many applied settings … -Structure tend to increase confounding bias more rapidly than M -Bias, suggesting that choosing to condition on any given …

Abstract Although the concept of randomized assignment in order to control for extraneous confounding factors reaches …

Basic causality is that a cause is present or absent and that the effect follows with a success or not. This happy … Confounding and values {S, -S}, {C, -C}, {F, -F}. Assuming the truth we can find the impact of the cause from when the confounder … conditional independence. The paper gives a taxonomy of issues of confounding, a parameterization by risk or safety, and develops …

confounding. We do not require (conditionally) exogenous regressors or instruments. Using proxies W for the confounders U, we ask … proportional confounding are limit cases yielding full identification. Alternatively, the elements of beta-hat are partially …

third variable, susceptible of confounding the relation between X and Y. This paper examines complex systems of variables …, characterised by multiple causes and multiple effects. The paper advances the view that in such contexts confounding is a moot issue …

Success, Cause and Confounder) and the use of variables by NCR (notably the variables Effect, Truth and Confounding). (3 …