The monetary character of trade, use of a common medium of exchange, is shown to be an outcome of economic general equilibrium in the presence of transaction costs and market segmentation (in trading posts with a separate budget constraint at each transaction). Commodity money arises...

This study derives the monetary structure of transactions, the use of commodity or fiat money, endogenously from transaction costs in a segmented market general equilibrium model. Market segmentation means there are separate budget constraints for each transaction: budgets balance in each...

Commodity money arises endogenously in a general equilibrium model with convex transaction cost technology and with separate budget constraints for each transaction. Transaction costs imply differing bid and ask (selling and buying) prices. The most liquid good --- with the smallest...

Existence and efficiency of general equilibrium with commodity money is investigated in an economy where N commodities are traded at N(N-1)/2 commodity-pairwise trading posts. Trade is a resource-using activity recovering transaction costs through the spread between bid (wholesale) and ask...

Walrasian general competitive equilibrium is considered in a simple example of an exchange economy with commodity-pairwise trading posts and transaction costs. Budget balance is enforced at each trading post separately. Commodity-denominated bid and ask prices at each post allow the post to...

In an economy with commodity-pairwise trading posts and transaction costs, commodity money is endogenously determined in general equilibrium. Absent double coincidence of wants, the low-transaction cost commodity (with the narrowest proportional bid/ask price spread) becomes the common medium of...

General equilibrium is investigated with N commodities traded at N(N−1) 2 commodity-pairwise trading posts. Trade is a resource-using activity recovering transaction costs through the spread between bid (wholesale) and ask (retail) prices (quoted as commodity rates of exchange). Budget...

The application and design of public-private partnerships between the extremes of purely public or purely private task fulfilment in public services is, in practice, subject to political processes. Decisions about PPPs (realisation, arrangement) are taken in the political arena and are therefore...

Using bilateral data on remittance flows to Pakistan for 23 major host countries, this is the first study that examines the effect of transaction costs on foreign remittances. The authors find that the effect of transaction costs on remittance flows is negative and significant; suggesting that a...