increase in office visits reduced avoidable emergency room visits. In September 2015, the city of Flint issued a lead advisory … to its residents, alerting them of increased lead levels in their drinking water, resulting from the switch in water … the share of enrollees who had lead tests performed by 1.7 percentage points. Additionally, it increased office visits …

We study how ambient lead exposure impacts learning in elementary school by leveraging a natural experiment where a … exposure to lead negatively affect academic performance, shift the entire academic performance distribution, and negatively … impacts of lead are larger in impoverished, non-white counties, and among students with greater duration of exposure, even …